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A Study of War

by Quincy Wright

  1. People / Organizations:

    • Petrarch (pg. 172)

    • Boccaccio (pg. 172)

    • Montaigne (pg. 172)

    • Rabelais (pg. 172)

    • Erasmus (pg. 172)

    • A.L. Lowell (pg. 201)

    • Walter Lippmann (pg. 201)

    • C.E. Merriam (pg. 201)

    • H.D. Lasswell (pg. 201)

  2. Quotes:

    • "planning for peace cannot take place in the armchair. It can take place only in practical action to meet international problems."  - Author (pg. 7)

    • "the causes of war are the absence of conditions of peace" - Author (pg. 16)

    • "as general culture advances, the size of the fighting group tends to increase; the battle of pounce and retreat tends to give way to the battle of mass attack and maneuver" (pg. 85)

    • "states and civilizations have been built up by war but have eventually disintegrated through war" - Author (pg. 130)

    • "no education can protect against continued suggestions from a controlled press or radio when no countersuggestions are available" - Author (pg. 180)

    • "This country needs a war" - Theodore Roosevelt (pg. 229)

    • "It is like the bomb in the hands of a bank robber, which if tossed will destroy both bank and robber but which when threatened may induce the cashier to comply with demands peacefully" - Author on the Effects of Modern Military Techniques (pg. 320)

    • "the increasing cost of war has made it less useful and has induced a greater reluctance to resort to it. War by its nature is most suitable as an instrument for occupying and controlling territory. In modern times, however, states often wish to acquire markets or access to raw materials in territory which they have no intention of annexing" - Author (pg. 320)

    • "political institutions require both dignified parts to give them power and efficient parts to direct that power to appropriate ends" - Author (pg. 344)

    • "military conquest and migrations have expanded civilizations. Wars of attrition have destroyed civilizations" - Author (pg. 395)

    • "a scientific statement usually asserts that if all factors can be ignored, except those observable, controllable, and presumptively measurable factors which it deals with as variables, parameters, or constants, a specified degree of change in any variable tends to be followed immediately or in a specified time by a specified degree of change in the other variables" - Author (pg. 729)

    • "armament increases in one state have usually been motivated by anxiety as to actual or prospective armament increases in neighboring states" - Author (pg. 792)

    • "the prime object of naval war is the control of commerce" - Author (pg. 793)

    • "the belligerent with the greater economics resources and civilian morale will win, though only after both have been ruined" - Author (pg. 794)

    • "a fort is an offensive weapon only within range of its guns [striking power]" - Author (pg. 808)

    • "a machine gun in a trench is a defensive weapon, but a tank equipped with a machine gun is a powerful offensive weapon. It has mobility, protection, and striking power combined." - Author (pg. 808)

    • "public opinion is an expression of preference" - Author (pg. 1080)

  3. Data Resources:

  4. General Notes:

    • "The growth of the opinion that war is a problem may be attributed to 4 types of change" (pg. 3)

      • A shrinking world - "modern technology has made the world of today smaller…[as] people in every section of the world have become interdependent in their economy, culture, and politics." (pg. 3)

      • The acceleration of history - "the speed of social change [has increased]" (pg. 4)

      • The progress of military intervention.

      • The rise of democracy.

    • "War is the legal condition which equally permits two or more hostile groups to carry on a conflict by armed forces" (pg. 8)

    • "the causes of war might be stated in terms of conditions or circumstances which have existed, or they might be stated in terms of the absence of structure or policies which human ingenuity might bring into existence" (pg. 16)

    • "it would appear that the seriousness and degree of institutionalization of war among primitive peoples is related more closely to the complexity of culture, political organization, and extra-group contacts." (pg. 68)

      • Unwarlikeness - "the result of prolonged opportunity of neighboring groups to achieve equilibrium in relation to one another and to the physical environment" (pg. 68)

      • Warlikeness - "resulted from frequent disturbances of the equilibrium of a group with respect to its physical environment or its neighbors." (pg. 68) "Warlikeness has been correlated with high cultural and social organization" (pg. 74)

    • "among every primitive people there is some group which constitutes the political unit, thus characterized because it is the group which sanctions the use of force internally and externally. It punishes crime, authorize retaliation, and makes war. Most commonly, it is a village or group of neighboring villages. War serves to distinguish this group as the center of social organization. Where war does not exist, this poltical unit may be difficult to identify." (pg. 70)

    • "warfare assists in preserving social solidarity by keeping alive the realization of a common enemy who will destroy the group if it is not prepared to resist." (pg. 71)

    • "war serves the double purpose of enabling a people to give expression to anger caused by a disturbance of the internal harmony, and of strengthening ties which hold them together" - Camilla H. Wedgewood (pg. 73)

    • "the larger and more complex the group, the more necessary has war appeared to be an instrument for its integration" (pg. 74)

    • "all the drives considered in connection with animal war - food, sex, territory, activity, self-preservation, society, dominance, and independence - can be observed among primitive peoples." (pg. 74)

    • "in general, it may be said that primitive man in fighting relies mainly on striking power with bow and arrow, and on mobility, utilizing the stratagem of surprise from ambush or darkness. His war is one of pounce and maneuver. Only after contact with civilization does he organize a mass charge and complicated tactics. " (pg. 82)

    • "civilization implies the passage of culture beyond a certain threshold of capacity for ideological construction, economic efficiency, political organization, and symbolic expressions of values." (pg. 106)

    • "each civilization is distinguished by a unique complex of fundamental values in which its members believe and which, to some extent, guides their choices." (pg. 108)

    • Four Stages of a Civilization: (pg. 117) "Enthusiasm > Trouble > Stability > Boredom" (pg. 118)

      • "begins with a new social ideal created in response to a challenge of adverse environment, invasion, or civil war" (pg. 117)

      • "conflicts among the many movements started in this period leads to a time of trouble full of civil dissension, economic collapse, and rebuilding" (pg. 117)

      • "the economic distress of this period often leads to political activity and a more complete integration of the civilization in a stable balance of power" (pg. 117)

      • "the suppression of individual freedom and local autonomy leads to growth of art and luxury in the upper classes" (pg. 118)

    • "the internal and external advocates of change have usually gained more from war than have the advocates of stability" (pg. 128)

    • "because all old civilizations of the past have had younger civilizations beside them or within them, they had not been able to escape war altogether" (pg. 130)

    • "as civilization has advanced, it has become more and more necessary that wars should be fought for ideas" (pg. 159)

    • "The period of the Renaissance marked the emergence of a new type of dynamic equilibrium and initiated a new trend in history" (pg. 166)

    • "institutions and methods, values and ideas, were compared and exchanged by the rising elites" (pg. 168)

    • Political & Philosophical Perspectives:

      • Humanism - "asserts that the source of values is human insight, that institutions and arts exist for man, and that every member and section of the human race is worthy of consideration in social planning and action." (pg. 170, 202)

      • Liberalism - "every individual should have an opportunity to develop his own personality" (pg. 176, 203)

      • Pragmatism - "asserts that the only test we have for judging the truth of any proposition is confirmation by experience of its concrete consequences" (pg. 181, 203)

      • Relativism - "no experience is real except in relation to a frame of reference" (pg. 188, 204)

    • 4 Periods of post-Renaissance (pg. 196)

      • Wars of Religion (1520-1648) (pg. 332)

      • Political Absolutism (1648-1789) (pg. 335)

      • Industrial Democracy & Nationalism (1789-1914) (pg. 338)

      • World War (1914 - present) (pg. 341)

    • "The intensity of war may be measured by the frequency of battles, of campaigns, or of wars" (pg. 218)

    • "prosperity suffers not only from the direct destruction of property and workers by military action but from dislocations of production and trade which may cause serious depressions long after the war is over" (pg. 219)

    • "the average duration of participation in a war by the 11 principle European Powers from 1450 to 1930 was 2.5 years. The average length of the 278 wars from 1450 to 1930 was 4.4 years" (pg. 226)

    • "the size of armies has tended to increase during the modern period both absolutely and in proportion to the population" (pg. 232, 304)

    • "wars have often begun as civil wars or bilateral wars. Consequently, the fact that they have ended with a larger number of participants indicates the increasing tendency of wars to spread." (pg. 239)

    • "wars during the last four centuries tended to involve a larger proportion of the belligerent states' population and resources and to be more intense, more extended, and more costly" (pg. 248)

    • "war has been the method actually used for achieving the major political changes of the modern world, the building of nation-states, the expansion of modern civilization throughout the world, and the changing of the dominant interests of that civilization." (pg. 250)

    • "war has been one means for maintaining the balance of power. The balance of power is a system designed to maintain a continuous conviction in every state that if it attempted aggression in would encounter an invincible combination of others" (pg. 254)

    • Techniques of Modern War (pg. 291)

      • Tactics - "the management of military operations in direct contact with the enemy in order to win battles" (pg. 291)

      • Strategy - "the management of operations so as to effect such contact under maximum advantage in order to win campaigns" (pg. 292)

      • Grand Strategy - "the management of operations so as to determine the times, areas, and results of campaigns in order to win the war" (pg. 292)

      • Military Policy - "consists of the objectives, principles, methods, and rules which guide the preparation and direction of military operations. Military policy is subordinate to national policy" (pg. 292)

    • "the increasing importance of commerce, the vulnerability of the British Isles to blockade, and the invulnerability of Britain to land attack induced Britain to adopt a policy of naval superiority and to rely upon control of the seas as the main instrument of warfare" (pg. 296)

    • "in the U.S. decentralized institutions, geographic isolation, and the democratic tradition formed a barrier against militarism. In Japan, Italy, and the Soviet Union, the circumstances of political ambition, economic frustration, imputations of racial, social, and political inferiority, and post-war disorganization tended toward military totalitarianism" (pg. 302)

    • "the use of long-range striking power (rifles, machine guns, artillery, gases), of power-propelled means of mobility (railroads, motorcar, ships, tanks), and of heavy protective covering has meant that the problem of war manufacture has risen to primary importance. A dozen men must be engaged in production and transportation services behind the lines to keep one soldier supplied." (pg. 304)

    • "these six characteristics of modern military technique - increased mechanization and size of armed forces, more general militarization and nationalization of the people, more comprehensive, intense, and extended operations - collectively tend toward totalitarian military organization of the belligerents and during war" (pg. 311)

    • Effects of Modern Military Technique (pg. 313)

      • Imperialism - "nations skilled in modern military techniques have an overwhelming advantage over those not so skilled" (pg. 313)

      • Wars of Attrition - "modern military techniques have increased the probability of a deadlock and a war of attrition between great powers, both of which are equally skilled in the use of these methods" (pg. 314) "without change in rules, weapons, or tactics the strategic defensive has tended to gain over the strategic offensive, and wars have tended to end only by mutual attrition" (pg. 383)

      • Increased Role of Industrial and Political Management - "States may fail to win wars over their technological equals, even though they win most of the battles. With this development economic strength, propaganda strength, and diplomatic strength have increased in relative importance [than strictly military operations]" (pg. 317)

      • Nuisance Value - "As an instrument of policy, war is more useful because of its nuisance value than because of its capacity for positive achievement" (pg. 319)

    • "the increasing cost of war has made it less useful and has induced a greater reluctance to resort to it. War by its nature is most suitable as an instrument for occupying and controlling territory. In modern times, however, states often wish to acquire markets or access to raw materials in territory which they have no intention of annexing" (pg. 320)

    • Balance of Power and Collective Security (pg. 322-323)

    • Major Functions of Society (pg. 358)

      • The Maintenance of Order and Justice

      • The Production and Distribution of Wealth

      • The Conditioning of Individuals to Social Requirements

      • The Justification of Society in Terms of Individual Desires

    • "European politics has been dominated by four conceptions:" (pg. 360)

      • Territorial Sovereignty - "sovereignty changed Europe from a chaos of thousands of overlapping lordships to a score of states" (pg. 360)

      • Balance of Power - The Peace of Utrecht (1714) (pg. 361)

        • "balance of power policies have tended toward polarization of all states about the two most powerful of the group, leading to serious wars involving all of them. Such polarization has usually resulted when alliances, counter-alliances, and armament races have been utilized to maintain the balance of power" (pg. 382)

      • Concert of Power - The Treaty of Vienna (1815) (pg. 361)

      • Nationality (pg. 362)

    • "the rapid expansion of international communication, travel, and trade has tended to increase the amount of war" (pg. 380)

    • "catastrophe, conquest, corruption, and conversion [the four processes of social change] may operate to destroy a social equilibrium and to terminate a civilization" (pg. 394)

    • "according to the degree of its isolation, a community has ordinarily pursued policies designed to maintain itself in static, dynamic, oscillating, or adaptive stability. These policies require a community to devote attention respectively to the degree of its isolation from the external events, to its general defensive position with reference to external attacks, to the strategical position of its most probable enemy, and to the degree of its dependence upon the community. These directions of attention are likely to lead to policies, respectively, of isolation, preparedness, balance of power, and collective security" (pg. 397)

      • Isolation - "public policy based on the assumption of relative isolation, whether the natural result of geography or the artificial result of commercial barriers and poltical aggressiveness, has tended to produce inflexibility to external changes and to result in disaster" (pg. 398)

      • Preparedness - "a community which is only moderately isolated has usually pursued policies designed to preserve its identity in dynamic stability and has naturally paid first attention to its defensive position given all probable external influences" (pg. 398)

      • Balance of Power - "unable to defend itself by its own resources from all the external threats to its existence, it has concentrated on its most dangerous enemies and by alliance and occasional war has hoped to maintain independence" (pg. 399) "In the static sense a balance of power is the condition which accounts for the continued coexistence of independent government in contact with one another. In the dynamic sense balance of power characterizes the policies adopted by governments to maintain that condition. The term 'balance of power' implies that changes in relative power can be observed and measured." (pg. 743) "thus, policies of rearmament and disarmament, annexation and cession of territory, alliance and counter-alliance, intervention and nonintervention, are frequently said to be intended to preserve the balance of power" (pg. 748)

        • Actual Power - "actual military power includes land, naval, and air armament. This includes personnel, material, organization, morale of the armed forces, railroads, motor vehicles, civil aircraft, and other means of communication [or transportation]" (pg. 753)

        • Potential Power - "potential military power consists of available population, raw materials, industrial skill, and industrial plant capable of producing military power" (pg. 753)

        • Balance of Power Assumptions: (pg. 752)

          • "every sovereign state tends to impose its will on every other, choosing first that one least capable of resisting; that every state tends to resist the imposition upon itself; and that war is likely whenever the pressure of imposition exceeds capacity to resist at any point" (pg. 752)

          • "the capacity of a state to resist or attack are functions of the relative power of the two states separated by frontier and the degree of their separation." (pg. 753)

          • "the power of each sovereign state and the degree of separation from every other sovereign can be measured" (pg. 753)

        • Balance of Power Conclusions: (pg. 754)

          • "stability will increase and the probability of war will decrease in proportion as the number of the states in the system increase" (pg. 755)

          • "stability will increase as the parity in the power of states increase" (pg. 755)

          • "stability will be promoted by a moderate separation of states from one another" (pg. 755)

        • "the rise of industrialism, of nationalism, of constitutionalism, of democracy, and of international organization in the nineteenth century has seriously impaired the assumptions upon which the balance of power rests." (pg. 766)

      • Collective Security - "a community so completely integrated by communication and transportation that its parts naturally adapt themselves immediately in response to external changes has been able to preserve its identity only in so far as it could exercise a reasonable influence in the regulation of this environment" (pg. 400)

    • "the natural isolation of all states has decreased. All the world has, under the influence of communication, trade, and technology, become a single community" (pg. 401)

    • "4 historical events which have been called wars can be characterized by:" (pg. 685)

      • Military Activity - "such phenomena as mobilization, conscription, blockade, siege, organized fighting, invasion, and occupation may all occur without war; but they occur more frequently and on a larger scale during war" (pg. 685)

        • Battles

          • "the most concentrated type of military activity" (pg. 685)

          • "the progress of invention with respect to instruments of communication, transportation, defense, and attack has made it possible for centralized military direction to be maintained over greater numbers of men, operating through greater areas, for longer periods of time." (pg. 686)

        • Campaigns

          • "this term is used to designate a group of military operations within a limited period of time connected by a strategic plan under control of a single command" (pg. 687)

          • "a campaign does involve movements of actual armies, navies, or air forces, of which at least one side is engaged in a strategic offensive, such as an effort to occupy hostile territory, to acquire resources from the enemy, or to accomplish other military objectives." (pg. 687)

        • War

          • "[can] be regarded from the standpoint of each belligerent as an extreme intensification of military activity, psychological tension, legal power, and social integration." (pg. 698)

            • The Anarchist - "striving to eliminate all legal coercion" (pg. 700)

            • The Isolationist - "striving to eliminate all intergroup relations" (pg. 700)

            • The Pacifist - "trying to eliminate all violence" (pg. 700)

            • The Idealist - "striving to eliminate all conflicts" (pg. 700)

          • "the legal condition which equally permits two or more hostile groups to carry on a conflict by armed forces" (pg. 718)

        • Arms Race

          • "military and naval budgets, standing armies, and naval, air, and tank fleets become steadily larger. A larger proportion of the productive energy of states is devoted to military affairs." (pg. 690)

      • High Tension levels - "5 states of tension level may be expressed by the words 'symbolic attack', 'threats of violence', 'discrimination', 'disapproval', and 'normal relations'." (pg. 691)

      • Abnormal Law (pg. 694)

      • Intense Political Integration - "consists in legal, social, and political changes within the belligerent community, tending toward more intensive integration. In a time of war or threat of war the armament industry and the production of raw materials are usually the first economic activity to be regulated or taken over by the government. This is soon followed by the taking-over of agencies of transportation and communication, education, and propaganda." (pg. 697)

    • "Writers have declared the cause of WWI to have been the Russian or German mobilization; the Austrian ultimatum; the Sarajevo assassination; the aims and ambitions of the Kaiser, Poincare, Izvolsky, Berchtold, or someone else; the desire of France to recover Alsace-Lorraine or Austria to dominate the Balkans; the European system of alliances; the activities of the munition-makers, the international bankers, or the diplomats; the lack of an adequate European political order; the sentiment of nationality; the concept of sovereignty; the struggle for existence; the tendency of nations to expand; the unequal distribution of population, resources, or of planes of living; the law of diminishing returns; the value of war as an instrument of national policy; and many others" (pg. 727)

    • "because territorial acquisition is usually thought to increase the acquiring state's position in the balance of power system, states very rarely cede territory voluntarily. Governments, therefore, are reluctant to yield even in apparently small matters, especially when territory is involved." (pg. 771) "it is to be expected that territory will continue as an important index of power and the balance of power will continue to be disturbed by claims of territorial change." (pg. 772)

    • "alliances and regional coalitions among the weak to defend themselves from the strong have been the typical method for preserving the balance of power" (pg. 773)

      • Ad Hoc Alliance

        • "such alliances do not reduce the number of independent participants in the system but leave each state free to add its weight against the states threatening to destroy the balance at any time" (pg. 773)

      • A Permanent Guarantee to a Particular State of Territory

        • "it appears that a balance of power system is more stable if permanent alliances are avoided, if all states remain free to determine their action until a crises actually approaches." (pg. 774)

        • "appeasement will encourage aggression until it reaches a point threatening the independence of all, but threats against the unsatisfied may unite them and leave no alternative but counter-alliance and augmentation of the tendency toward polarization of the balance of power." (pg. 775)

      • A Permanent Regional Bloc, Coalition, or Confederation

        • "they have been unstable and unreliable arrangements in which the members, because of defensive emergency or because of geographic, historic, or cultural bonds, have accepted the leadership of one or have united their policies by agreement with full reservation of sovereignty" (pg. 776)

      • A General System of Collective Security

    • "armament increases in one state have usually been motivated by anxiety as to actual or prospective armament increases in neighboring states" (pg. 792)

    • "the prime object of naval war is the control of commerce" (pg. 793)

    • "the belligerent with the greater economics resources and civilian morale will win, though only after both have been ruined" (pg. 794)

    • "air war as an independent service has the objective of destroying enemy naval forces, shipping, bases, troop concentrations, munition depots, transportation centers, and war factories. The air attack upon the enemy air forces is to give freedom of the air, as the naval attack upon the enemy naval force is to give freedom of the seas" (pg. 794)

    • "the prime object of land war us the occupation of enemy territory. Capture of destruction of his armies and fortification is a means to this end." (pg. 795)

    • "quantitative reduction of armaments inevitably affects the relative size of armaments in different countries. Proposals for quantitative reduction have usually attempted first to solve the problem of relative strength." (pg. 802)

    • "qualitative disarmament meant the elimination of certain types of military instruments and methods deemed to be particularly valuable for aggression. Its object is to increase the possession of defensive weapons and to decrease the possession of offensive weapons to such an extent that each country will approximate a perfect defense against any probable attack. Invasion will then be physically impossible." (pg. 805)

      • "it has been questioned whether a valid distinction can be made between defensive and offensive weapons. While the shield would ordinarily be spoken of as defensive and the sword as offensive, it is clear that even in this simple case the distinction is relative. The shield increases the offensive effectiveness of the sword." (pg. 806)

      • "military analysts have considered that an offensive weapons consists of 4 elements: mobility, protection, striking power, and holding power" (pg. 808)

      • "a fort is an offensive weapon only within range of its guns [striking power]" (pg. 808)

      • "a machine gun in a trench is a defensive weapon, but a tank equipped with a machine gun is a powerful offensive weapon. It has mobility, protection, and striking power combined." (pg. 808)

    • "the ideas which have guided the policy of modern government may be classified as world-dominance, stable equilibrium, unstable equilibrium, and international organization" (pg. 814)

      • "A government will strive to maintain a superiority in armament by inventing new weapons, organizations, and strategies; by increasing its own naval, military, and air forces; by compelling political rivals to disarm; by annexing territory; and by making unequal alliances as the opportunity arises. This fact is probably the most important single element in the causation of major modern wars" (pg. 815)

    • "governments tends to place domestic requirements ahead of international requirements because their impact upon the existence of the government is more immediate" (pg. 819)

    • "in the simplest sense of the term, the government is the group of men who decide how the state shall function at a given moment" (pg. 819)

    • "sovereignty has been considered a major cause of modern war" (pg. 895)

      • "sovereignty has been defined as 'the status of an entity subject to international law and superior to municipal law'" (pg. 896)

    • "sanctions may be moral, involving appeal merely to the intelligence and good faith of the person, such as the judgement of a court, advice, or admonition by suitable authority, or they may be physical, involving promises to employ or actual employment of measures affecting the person's interests in order to control his conduct" (pg. 941)

      • "sanctions against states are in danger of assuming all the characteristics of war however much they might differ in theory and in initiation" (pg. 941)

    • "every state has a duty to respect the rights and powers which international law has attributed to each state and which in the legal sense constitute its existence. These rights and powers assure the state the opportunity to possess its domain, to protect its nationals, to govern within it jurisdiction, and to enjoy its status through the legal exercise of its powers. War is in essence a denial of all of these rights" (pg. 950)

    • "every society is continually on the brink of conflict. It must continually adapt its organization and policy to changing conditions of internal opinion and external pressure" (pg. 955)

    • "war may be explained by examining the processes of the world-community to ascertain why international oppositions tend to assume the form of military conflict" (pg. 958)

    • 4 Forms of Families of Nations: (pg. 965)

      • Empires - "the empire seeks to military and political power in a single authority with control over the individuals enforceable by law" (969)

      • Church - "the church claims divine authority and seeks to rule with moral sanctions alone" (pg. 969)

      • Balance of Power System - "instead of concentrating authority, [it] seeks to distribute it among independent sovereign states which remain in equilibrium because of their separations and oppositions" (pg. 969)

      • Federation - "seeks to achieve the unity of the empire without sacrificing the autonomy of states" (pg. 969)

    • "propaganda is the process of manipulating symbols so as to affect the opinion of a group" (pg. 1093)

    • "such correlations [between economic and political fluctuations] have been suggested in the theory that a major war is the fundamental cause of economic crises and that long economic fluctuations are the main cause of wars and revolutions." (pg. 1273)

  5. Further Readings:

    • Changes in the Conception of War, by Quincy Wright [Changes in the Conception of War on JSTOR]

    • Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes

    • On War, Clausewitz

    • The Evolution of War, by M.R. Davie

    • Is War Diminishing? A Study of Europe from 1450 to the Present Day, by F.A. Woods and A. Baltzly

    • The Periodicity of War, 1625-1925, by James C. King

    • Fifteen Decisive Battles of History, by Sir Edward Creasy

    • The Causes of War and Peace, by G.T. Wrench

    • War as an Instrument of National Policy, by James T. Shotwell

    • Dictionary of Battles, by T.B. Harbottle

    • Economic Cause of the Second World War, by Deryck Abel

    • The Economic Causes of War, by Lionel Robbins

    • The Economic Causes of Modern War, by John Bakeless

    • Gold and Prices, by George F. Warren and F.A. Pearson (Table on pg. 207)

    • Work and Wages, by Thorold Rogers

    • Theories of International Relations, by F.M. Russell

    • Dialectic, by Mortimer Adler

    • Eternal Peace, by Immanuel Kant

    • The Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith

      • Chapter: Expense of Defense

    • The Decline and Fall, by Edward Gibbon

    • International Trade, by Franz Eulenberg

    • A Survey of International Trade Theory, [SP1.pdf (princeton.edu)]

    • Six Centuries of Work and Wages, by J.E. Thorold Rogers (pg. 208)

    • Direct and Indirect Cost of the Great World War, by E.L. Bogart

    • The Economic and Social History of the World War, by James T. Shotwell [Catalog Record: Economic and social history of the World War.... | HathiTrust Digital Library] [Catalog Record: Economic and social history of the world war... | HathiTrust Digital Library]

    • Military and Strategic Advantages of Collective Security in Europe, by B.H. Liddell Hart (pg. 708)

    • The Consequences of the War to Great Britain, by Francis Hirst (pg. 709)

    • The Economics of War and Conquest, by J.H. Jones (pg. 709)

    • Economic Phenomena Before and After War, by Emanuel Moresco

    • Populations Theories and Their Application with Special Reference to Japan, by E.F. Penrose

    • The Political Economy of War, by Francis Hirst

    • The political Economy of War, by A.C. Pigou

    • The Quest for Peace, by William E. Rappard

A Study of War: Text

©2025 by Binseel's Notes.

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